Firefighter Stair Climb: The Body, the Gear, the Cost Per Floor

“The elevators are out. We have to take the stairs.”

Those words, spoken in the lobby of any high-rise fire, launch a firefighter stair climb that pushes the human body to its absolute limit. Every phase of what comes next — suppression, search and rescue, logistical support — is measured in time. And time is the one thing a stairwell-only operation consumes without mercy.

The late Paul Grimwood, PhD, put it plainly: “Any fire of significant height, stairs alone are inadequate.” He was not being dramatic. He was being precise. When a firefighter carries the equivalent of a 135-pound barbell in protective gear and equipment up 20, 30, or 40 stories, the operational burden is not just difficult — it is, in many cases, unsustainable without the right preparation, the right deployment models, and the right infrastructure.

In the first article in this series, we examined what happens when the stairwell becomes the only path to the fire floor. This second installment goes deeper — into the body itself. What does a firefighter stair climb actually do to heart rate, core temperature, and muscular endurance? How long does it really take? What does the research say about equipment weight as a predictor of climbing performance? And what tactical adjustments can incident commanders make right now to keep their crews from arriving at the fire floor already exhausted?

The answers are grounded in data, not anecdote. And they should change how every department thinks about high-rise response.

Physical and Physiological Effects of the Firefighter Stair Climb

Nothing is more taxing on the human body than climbing stairs to reach the fire floor while carrying the heavy equipment that must come with you. We are not talking about a few flights in shorts and running shoes. We are talking about a firefighter stair climb covering a vertical distance of 10, 20, or 30 stories in full structural gear, with hose bundles, tools, and air cylinders — all while breathing compressed air through a facepiece.

Stair climbing engages more muscle mass than walking. It requires lifting, propelling, and driving the body upward against gravity with every step. This ascending motion demands significantly more stamina, lower-body strength, and aerobic capacity than flat-ground movement. It exposes firefighters to a greater risk of cardiovascular events and heat-related injuries than nearly any other fireground task.

The degree of operational impact at a high-rise fire is shaped by three primary variables: the number of floors to climb, the weight of the equipment carried, and the firefighter’s individual physical fitness. But here is what the research makes clear — even for a well-conditioned firefighter, the firefighter stair climb will eventually overwhelm the body’s ability to sustain pace, regulate temperature, and make sound decisions. The question is not whether fatigue will set in. The question is how soon, and at what cost to the operation.

Cardiovascular Strain in the Firefighter Stair Climb

The cardiovascular system takes the first and hardest hit. One study found that carrying 86.5 pounds of equipment during a firefighter stair climb imposes significant and prolonged strain on the heart. Heart rates can rise to 95 percent of maximum capacity within as little as five minutes, and in less-conditioned firefighters, they can reach dangerous peak exertion levels of 180 to 200 beats per minute.

That is not a training number. That is a redline.

Prolonged stair climbs further elevate heart rates as the body struggles to meet escalating oxygen demands. Energy requirements during a sustained climb can exceed 80 percent of a firefighter’s maximum oxygen uptake, or VO2 max. And historically, cardiac events — including sudden cardiac arrest — have been the leading cause of firefighter line-of-duty deaths. The contributing factors that induce cardiac compromise read like a checklist of the firefighter stair climb itself: heavy equipment, encapsulating protective gear, heat stress, overexertion, and sustained work at near-maximal heart rates.

There is a cognitive cost as well. Prolonged fatigue, driven by elevated heart rates, impairs decision-making, diminishes dexterity, and causes auditory impairment. A firefighter who reaches the fire floor with a heart rate near 190 beats per minute is not thinking clearly, is not communicating efficiently, and is not operating at full capacity. The climb itself has already degraded the very capabilities the incident demands.

One operational precaution that should be standard: an automated external defibrillator needs to accompany the first-due companies on any firefighter stair climb beyond 10 stories. The AED must come up the stairs with the crews, not sit in the lobby. Firefighters in cardiac arrest need CPR where they are found. In a stair-alone operation, there will be significant delays in getting medical teams up to reach a down firefighter, and carrying a patient down multiple flights to render care is not a viable plan.

Heat Stress and Thermal Effects of the Firefighter Stair Climb

Personal protective equipment is designed to shield firefighters from external heat. But the same thermal layers that keep heat out also trap heat in. During a firefighter stair climb, encapsulated in full PPE, the body generates significant internal heat with limited ability to dissipate it through perspiration. The result is a steady, dangerous rise in core body temperature.

In one study conducted at the Illinois Fire Service Institute, firefighters performed simulated fireground activities — including a stair climb, hose advance, search, and overhaul — over the course of 14 minutes in a heated chamber at 116 degrees Fahrenheit. Heart rates reached near-maximal values of 180 to 185 beats per minute, and core temperature increased by more than one degree Fahrenheit. And that was in only 14 minutes of intermittent activity.

On a real firefighter stair climb to the 27th floor, the timeline is longer, the load is heavier, and the thermal burden compounds with every flight. Heat exhaustion begins at a core temperature of approximately 100.2 degrees Fahrenheit. Symptoms include profuse sweating, weakness, dizziness, and nausea — none of which are compatible with an aggressive interior attack. If core temperature continues to rise unchecked, heat stroke follows, a life-threatening condition marked by central nervous system dysfunction and loss of consciousness.

The thermal threat is not separate from the cardiovascular threat. They feed each other. As core temperature rises, heart rate climbs further to support thermoregulation. The circulatory system is already working at its ceiling from the physical exertion of climbing. Add thermal strain, and the margin for error disappears.

How Long Does a Firefighter Stair Climb Take?

Multiple studies have examined climbing rates when stairs are the only means of vertical movement. The data provides a usable predictive model, and the findings should sober any incident commander.

On average, a firefighter in full PPE and SCBA can climb at a rate of approximately one minute per floor for the first 10 stories. That pace is consistent — but only for those first 10 floors. By about the 12th floor, fatigue becomes a critical factor. Climbing rates slow. Rest breaks become necessary. And the weight of equipment carried becomes the single most substantial predictor of how much time the climb will consume.

For climbs beyond the 10th floor, the data splits based on load. Firefighters not burdened with extra equipment can sustain roughly 1.4 minutes per floor. Firefighters carrying additional equipment — hose bundles, extra cylinders, tools — slow to approximately 2.0 minutes per floor. That differential may sound small, but over 17 additional floors, it is the difference between about 24 minutes and 34 minutes just to reach the fire floor. And that is before anyone has deployed a hoseline, begun a search, or made a rescue.

Here is a harder number: carrying an extra load equivalent to 30 percent of a firefighter’s body weight decreases ascent rates by nearly 25 percent. But the more realistic assumption is that firefighters on a firefighter stair climb will carry 50 to 75 percent of their body weight in heavy firefighting equipment. That load pushes the climb rate down further, adding more time to an operation that already has none to spare.

For stair climbs beyond 10 stories, a short rest period of approximately 60 seconds should be incorporated for every five to six stories climbed. A brief rest allows the heart rate to decrease slightly, gives other firefighters a chance to catch up, and creates a natural moment for the officer to check crew well-being. The research also supports a tactical pause outside the stairwell on the floor below the fire floor. Crews that took a short break away from the noise and chaos of the stairwell performed demonstrably better when deploying a hoseline. The pause allowed company members to gather themselves and permitted the officer to make clear task and equipment assignments.

In a 27th-floor firefighter stair climb scenario — the one used across much of the existing research — even if a few firefighters manage to make the climb, the real question is whether they can initiate an effective, collaborative fire attack upon arrival. Most likely, the firefighting contingent will arrive fragmented, with the fastest climbers reaching the floor minutes ahead of the slowest. A splintered crew is not a fighting crew. And every minute the fire burns unchallenged, conditions on the fire floor and the floors above deteriorate in ways that cannot be recovered once the climb is over.

Equipment Weight and the Firefighter Stair Climb

High-Rise Stairwell Ascends

Weight slows firefighters down. It is the single most substantial individual predictor of stair climbing performance, and yet it is seldom factored into high-rise deployment models. Firefighters will carry too much weight without giving it a second thought — the tenacity of the American fire service is unmatched. But on a firefighter stair climb that covers a significant vertical distance, overburdening crews is not a virtue. It is a liability.

A staffing-lean response, by default, encourages firefighters to carry too much equipment. The fewer the personnel, the more each individual shoulder loads. That load becomes unrealistic and dangerous when the only way up is the stairwell. Carrying the weight equivalent of a 135-pound barbell up 40 flights of stairs is an extraordinary challenge even for an Olympic athlete. Eventually, the stairwell operation will come to a grinding halt once the physiological and thermal consequences manifest. The goal is to get firefighters up into the building where they need to be — and that requires a realistic, well-thought-out approach to what is carried and how.

The Unrealistic Load

Firefighters carrying multiple hose bundles, tools in both hands, and extra air cylinders are setting themselves up for failure before they reach the 10th floor. Shoulder-loaded hose bundles shift and slide off, forcing frequent stops to readjust. Hand-carrying tools leads to grip fatigue, requiring more stops to switch hands. Weight needs to be carried high and close to the body, above the hips, to prevent equipment from banging against the legs during the climb. The goal is to minimize weight per firefighter — and to carry it efficiently.

SCBA Bottle Loading

Bottle loading is an effective method for transporting hose bundles during a firefighter stair climb. The technique involves placing the hose bundle neatly atop the SCBA air cylinder, tight against the firefighter’s back. Here, the weight is axially loaded close to the center of gravity, and the hands remain free to use the handrails as fatigue sets in. When properly worn, the waist strap of the SCBA absorbs roughly 75 percent of the weight of the hose bundle, transferring it from the shoulders to the hips. A second firefighter is needed to help position the bundle — but once it is in place, the climber’s efficiency improves measurably.

Bunker Coat Disrobing

For a firefighter stair climb beyond 10 stories in a clean, smoke-free stairwell, a more practical method exists: disrobe. Removing the turnout coat and SCBA, then donning the SCBA first and placing the turnout coat neatly atop the air cylinder, reduces heat buildup, maintains core temperature, and allows heat to dissipate unrestricted from the upper torso. Gloves, helmets, and flash hoods can also be removed and properly stowed. On arrival at the destination floor — or when changing conditions demand it — the firefighter can don the full PPE and SCBA in less than one minute. That minute is minimal compared to the cessation of a stair climb due to fatigue and heat exhaustion.

This technique is not suitable when the stairwell is contaminated with smoke. But when the stairwell is tenable, disrobing is one of the few field-expedient measures that directly addresses the thermal burden of the climb without requiring new equipment or additional personnel. It is a tactic that should be in every department’s high-rise playbook.

Understanding the Dynamics of the Firefighter Stair Climb

The operational impact of a stairwell-only operation creates challenges that extend far beyond the physical demands on individual firefighters. Climbing stairs to reach the 27th floor is a considerable vertical distance to cover, and the time required to ascend makes the entire operation vulnerable to time-developed events. The fire you were called to 20 minutes ago will not be the same fire you encounter when the climb is over.

Window failure is one concern. Windows can fail at any point during a fire, introducing wind-driven conditions that transform the fire floor and alter smoke movement throughout the building. If the first-due company is still in the stairwell when that window fails, they are climbing into conditions that have already changed — and not in their favor.

Door control is another. In many older, non-sprinklered residential high-rise buildings, aging infrastructure, neglect, and insufficient maintenance of passive fire protection systems can allow a compartment fire to extend into the hallway. Doors leading to the stairwell become smoke-saturated. Eventually, smoke saturates the building, exposing occupants to greater risk. Every open door represents a potential flow path. Stack effect and reverse stack effect are amplified when doors remain open. Smoke conditions in the stairwell may force already exhausted firefighters to mask up earlier than anticipated, inviting further challenges — disorientation, out-of-air scenarios, and the cascading consequences that follow.

Counterflow is a reality that must be planned for. In many instances, firefighters ascending the stairwell will encounter self-evacuating building occupants coming down the same stairs. Narrow return stair widths, common in older construction, or scissors stairs make it difficult for firefighters to maneuver past occupants, creating an impasse and preventing further movement. It is not uncommon to find building occupants in stairwells despite shelter-in-place directions.

The convergence of these dynamics — time delay, fire development, smoke spread, counterflow, physical exhaustion — reveals a consistent pattern. When stairs alone are used to reach the upper floors of a high-rise fire, expect substantial time delays and lengthy periods of non-intervention that will have an overall effect on reflex time. Expect fire and smoke conditions to worsen during a lengthy firefighter stair climb, creating a greater threat to both civilians and firefighters. Unequivocally, smoke spread is the largest threat to building occupants during a high-rise fire.

The implications for incident command are direct. Proper staffing, logistical support, and timely firefighter relief are necessary for a sustained, uninterrupted high-rise operation. The entire operation will suffer severe delays when restricted to stairwell movement. These vulnerabilities are exacerbated by time. The valuable time lost during a lengthy climb gives the fire additional time to develop and spread — and that time cannot be recovered once the climb is over.

Understanding the unique dynamics of the firefighter stair climb is vital for improving safety, reducing reflex times, and strengthening operational effectiveness. This means examining efficient deployment models. It means exploring lighter equipment options. It means including high-rise contingency plans that address stair-only vertical movement. And it means training on how to treat and remove a down firefighter in the stairwell — because in a stairs-only operation, that is precisely where the Mayday will occur.

The research is clear. The data is published. What remains is for departments to take that knowledge and build it into their high-rise response — before the elevators fail and the only way up is the stairs.

This article is the second in a two-part series on the operational burdens of stairwell-only high-rise firefighting. Part 1, “When the Stairs is All You Have,” examined the tactical and logistical consequences of elevator failure at high-rise incidents. Both articles draw on the research of Captain James Davis (Chicago Fire Department), whose article “Operational Burdens: The Impact of Firefighter Stairwell Ascends at High-Rise Fires” appeared in the April 2025 Firefighter Air Supplement published by Fire Engineering in partnership with the Firefighter Air Coalition. The full supplement, including the original Davis article and additional resources, is available at aircoalition.org.